<ƪ>ҽ
ҽ
ߣףԪ  
  
ݣԪ1644-1911  

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ԣ´ףˮɽ֮䣬ʱãѲδҲ޺Σ۲﹫Ͷ 
֮Ϥף֮Ѿҽ顣̾Ի˹Ϊ֮ҪνΪ 
һ壬ΪҺ֮ ˵ףչţԸΪĽ 
ڶھ֮ᣬȺܿܿڴ˴òҲΩơù 
ﲻ֪ߡ־ھԻԶʥ֮ͳֻʹھп 
ϲŭδ󡣷ɫǷǣһϢȡߣǧ״Ω֮յգ 
辡ɨΪؼ죬Ī֮ãԻף֮ѧָ֮飬ɷ 
֮ҲҽЧڼԫ󼲣ףʵһμ֮ 缢ʣ֮ 
ƥ򲻱Ϊνһ֮ѧϲ˹֮գʹ񤣬 
׭ǰҩں󣬼Դ޻Ҳ´ӣ ʹӣ񷲻һΪ 
ʼ飬㲼֮֮㴫ٹ֮ 
˾ɹΪУΪ󡣷 
ԣ֮ѧʥͳɼּ֮Ҳ޺ã棬 
ԵҩԵϣ㡣ʱôӿ®ˮԿʾɣн 
˹ߣԣ治ഹܿӡ 
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ԣҩһΪУٻ٢ȵԣ޴ҩʶƴ˼һӹҽҲ 
ҿʶۣգٿԣһšδ֮пʹ֮У֮ʹ֮ޣ 
ƪԻ֮֮˧Ҳۣ裬Ȼ 
ơóϢ΢΢Ϣ̵࣬١˳֮Ҳڹ۾Իν֮ȥ 
ν֮ͨν֮ϧ粻ţм粻ֳϢԳҲ 
磬񽫹ɣʯȻ¶棬ʳ񤣻飬ƽɣȻ¶ 
Ϊ 
ɣ򼲲е֮˰ֱغöö裬ʹг ҩ֮ 
غþþ˼Ϊѿ֮ 
ţ϶Ʃ֮ľľҲĬʡļ徻ల̩ҵ 
΢  
Ӽ˾̾ѧԾСշһιï 
ɣٲɡ 
Ωţ롢ԡоϣ߲ι޷ 
ʰĩǴ̻ɽţ֮νҲСɶƼ֮νҲ壬ƽ 
֣粨ɡΩأΩΪ 
һУãһзգħδǰΪնʱΪΪҶͬ 
ڲݶμƶԸԻҲҲΪ֮ 
궯ȥ֮񣬾һ񲻳ͬԳ 
ԲΪвΪ̣ǲΪͣܲΪۣ²˾ 
ߣ֮ľߣ֮Ծߣ֮󣻸ߣ֮ 
ơһһη粡£ϰɢƽ֮ϰϲԿ֮ʪϰ֮ 
йϰԵ֮㣬֮࣬Է֮򲡷ҩգѡ 
ƷǸ಻ȼ𣻹ȷˮɣˮࡣǰʳδּӲɣΩ࣬ΣΩ 
غԼ˰ 
ⱡʳߣʳ ˸Σ𾫣Ȳ 

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ԣŭˣѡ˾ŭ˶мؼӱ˶ 
伲αŭɣŭΪ壬ڵΪסԵŭֹʹ 
̿¯Իңת˲𡣷޵¶֪ǫ಻֮Ҳʾƶ渻 
ǣ㣬ڻޣá֪Ƚ֪ܲأȹ 
õơζ߱ص첡Ю߱صù֢ϰı߱ص̬߱ص 
ǧܰɶ£Ωƽƽˣ𼰣˹֮Ҳ 
عżҲս֮˵ΪΪ֮ŮűҡѪ֮ 
䲻й빬δܼߣ澫㣬֮ή˼ǹʹΪҩ֮ߡ 
ؽ֮͡ᾫӣӺģģ˼˼ġ 
Ωڤ⣬У󾲶ƶģľ飬ӡ 
ԡƽڣԽ˳ţԳ롣Ȼۣᾲйۿ 
ԣؼ䲻֮ҲΩڼʣھңԴģԴ 
ؽɱͬȻܲɱ֮Ȩ֮Ī˭ΡԹ 
ĿӣʹСв͸һ壬֮£֪࣬ĸΪ֮ϵҲ˸١ 
ؼ˼˼֮˼˼֮Ϊ˷㣬вȰΪ㡣ʱ 
ͬǻһ֮覣棻һ֮Σȱҩؽ˹ζҲ 

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<ƪ>ҩǰ
ԣǼۣĲá߷Ż֮˵ȥԶĹ޵õ֮£ 
֮ͬ䱦ɱ࣬ţνܣҩ 
ӡϢơþ꣬紺㣬ٳݡ䶯΢溬 
ݣޡϢ֮ܡ΢΢ٺԳٺ룬֮ 
ϣҩ֮۸֮ˣڴС 
ʱʳϼߣʼҲʳߣϷҲʳ宺ߣûҲʳ 
ߣҹҲϰ֮Ի̥ϢȪ֮Ի̥ʳô˵Ҳȴڶ 
֮Աٹȡ 
֮䣬ĶϢϢ룬Ϣסͷ£м䣬ôϢ 
΢ԪȻ֮ءٶֹ̥ϢӦ 
ơҪԻĿڡĿ֮뻣Һ֮šʶԿգտȻţ 
ͨߣҲԵ࣬ԿٹأбԼԹΣ 
ӢԱߣҲΪ뾲̫ϡԻþҲҲһ˳ 
˹ 
ʳζʳʱʳ˳֮о֮Ӱ֮ë֮񣬸 
жǧԪŹΩ᲻֪ܻʲηںṴ̋ 
ԻΪ˲֪Ի֮ͨ죬߷죬죬 
ȡزҲбһʬɥӡΰ˳ 
նأصꡣ 
ŻʵԻҺҹ粨֮ĺ 
ڶҺͣտڲ֮ԻǲʧϢӤ̥̥֮Ϣߣ 
أҲһ֣ڱ֮Ҳ֮Ϣ࣬ҲԪ 
Ϣӡ 
ڣ궨ǾҲܣɢҲ 
ɢˮᣬǴʹȻ˾ز 
زסһμţˮȻ 

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ԣϰ˹ҵֻҹ䣬㣬ھĦȾã˹ôҽ 
ͥڶ⣬ɽ󴨣øʿѼ飬δ飬ʦؾʼࡣҽ 
ȷ飬Сռȷ塷ʦ汾δһ 
ƣӡżһ֣ʮ̡ĺԶƽ£С񣬼Ͷ֮һߣѯ 
ߵн贶ԻС˽֮˱ظҲ°̣ԵҹȻ 
ǽھ죬쳩Ӥ̥У״˻ϣ֪нԻô˿Ҳ 
ɽ;롢ʹ˾ͣҺڣ֪֮˴ȴؾҲ󸴷ã򲢲 
ӡӿƣԢϾ£һǰ졣ԢԲʦ 
Ҳǰֹ־ľ˼ĳ⡢իּһıš 
ʼĽ䡢գ߲֪ൺ伴գ 
Ե֮ǳʧҲúհïԶʮ̳°Ҳּ 
߱Ϣʮ֡˶ν֡֡ʮ֡תŻԬ˷ӡ 
֮顣ȻΪֱ˵ʵäߣȻ֮ԣѳֽʣ 
ԬϢɱУܣö༭֮ºõ߿еã 
ҩȴΪҲ 

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ԣȽǵȴҾĿʮԼҺʮԾϣʹ 
а¾ӡһʮĬžŶֹǱҭҲͣ˼ǣʹ֮Ϣޡ 
ΪһϢž߰ʮһϢİٰʮҲڳ״֣У 
밲ޣȻаԶӡ 
ϢʮϢʮϢϢϣ಻£λ磬ɢһһҹһǧ 
Ϣ̫΢ơԻԻɣ졣ȴ˳߿ڣָĿ 
С ңĦ棬 ÿҺʮתֹ֮Һ 
࣬⡣ 
ͥƪԻԪ߳µע֮ʻ裬ƣѭ 
ܷ̾ڷ䡣̰ơΪƣΪ֮꣬ȹࡣֲҲ 
ɽҺйҺ֮ӿȪȻͨڱţڿڣ 
ǦϹӡʱɶ֮ڵٽڣȻҶ֮ţԻϱƣ뵤 
֮νҲ 
һ࣬һѨߣꡢǡ ΣĿģࣻ 
ΣǣƢƢйҹ˯ʱѬ 
ԲŶ֮֮֮˵ֹԽҺ嵤ȫڱտڷ£ 
һһ£ɢҲ 
ȫҪգռԱǰҹҪ˯ѣʱԲ޲ 
֮ڶ֮ƪԻñʮģӡ򸴱գóҽߣ߾ 
ʮݶʡҴСسҲʮӡգó 
ߣҽ߾ţʮʡҴУسҲһپʮԻ 
 ֮ѧ˵ˮȼ֮ΪԣˮΪʵԼɡ֮ˮ֮֮ 
֮𣬷֮ˮ֮½ܳɾͣϼ󴣬ͨԪŹٽ 
˹Ա̶Ҳ 
ÿʱ ĿӶȵʽһڣоű顣Ȳ Ѩž 
 
ţ˿Ƶ硣 

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ԣȪ֮Ի̥ʳõڱۣëڸ޽֮죬֮ס 
ϰٷ֮ʹ˾ĿʡԻýҺ֮Ϊ̣ɢΪƶ͡ 
ммԣñϢߺԼ֮Ԫж֮롣 
Ҫϣ֮ϣµţ£УѨµһ֣ 
ͬҲֹȻͽ޳ߣعԪ 
֮룬̥֮Ϣ۴ɡߣϣߣ 
Һһϣ۶֮Һڣ΢飬£¥ʺУǰ 
䣨ļ䣩ڣУȵǰʹֿ·ҴȣϥѨϥ 
£½űĴָתӿȪڽŵģɽŸѭȶϣβ̣ȵ󣩣Ϊһ 
áмյ׵ֱָۣתƣһأҸԣ 
󣬴Թඥãǰüϣ ӭ֮߶ֹΪһתͣǰж 
ͨᴩͨϣҺҲȻߣĿ֮ɣ֮ 
ɡҺߣҺ 
ҺΪҺ֮֮͸ڣ޴˽Һ֮֮Դһ 
ԱڴˡԴ˷֮ⶴϣͷɢ֮ɢȴȣĦʮ 
ѣĦʮĦԺʮģʮĴΣĦԪѨŶʮߴΣѨ 
ݴѨһʳָָ֮ѨŶʮߴΣֱĦ 
۶ʮĴΣָ۽ǣתʮĴΣתʮģֲĦۿʮģִ 
ڶָָȣĦǰʮģʮ壬ʮŴΣִָȣĦʮΣ 
ΣĦ֣Լ缰ָʮΣ֮ÿָȣĦ 
ʮһΣĦʮΣĦϥֺʮΣĦӿȪѨʮһΣĦİʮ 
һΣȻһּ֮Ƭʱáмִм 
̣ƣְְ꣬£ߵʮͨԼڣµ 
˺ӳڵУβ̣͸˫أãмյס裬ȵ 
ţأ꣬мֹʮͨʮһͨơϸߵʮ 
ͨʽҺڣʹɢϣ˫ĿӶ չ̣ȵҡ Ϊ֮ 
״ݡʹ߰˴ΣƽʱֻתʮοҲ˵طϣµأĬ 
ףԻԪꣻףԻ±ף 
Ի꿡ǧ겻ʳߣϢҲ֮ѨɣԻԻҺԻߣӿ 
ȪԹߣҲ֮Ҳ֮Ҳ֮֮ҪɡʼԵ 
ͨѪ԰壻ްУƻȫԪԸ澫澫һ 
ӡ֮Ҫں룬ĿӣʹʶʶΪ̥Ϊ϶ 
ȻҲ¼㣬ԳӡΣҲΪǣͨأϹ® 
ͨӡǴԪ ǴԸӡԪߣ֮ҲĪ 
ȺѪ٣Ѫʵʵ飬ĺڷӡĺߣѪҲҪں 
̶ˣˣƢˣˣʶˡشҲѪˣˣˣ 
ˣнˣ֪Ѫ߷¾ŻԪҺѪ飬ƣǳɽ 
˪ӡΣػҲŭϲһӣ 
ȣӣ֮ɢ֮ʿ伫һ 
ӣһƣѣʵȫ 
˺ε֮껹ḁ̇̄Ҳߣ 
ҲΪһߣ绷йһ֣һ֮⣬Ϊ 
һ֮֮Ҳܴ̣֮ˮӦ̶ 
䳱ӡߣĹ֮Ҳˮ֮Ҳ 
ʵΪ׽𣬵úΪӡƢ 
ߣԪ֮Ҳȷ¹ţһ֣Ϊµߣ֮ţǶ 
ҲƢʹӯǿӡߣ֮ҲΪ⣬ӦĿͫ 
Ԫ֮Ⱦã֮ҹӡ֮Ҳ뷢 
ӳѡҺ֮Ǧɳϵ¹ؼ 
йʥ̥˹ӡ֮Һ罭֮עڣԴԴҲ 
ߣģ֮аֹֹ֮֮֮ 
ǣ֮ڤ⣬У󾲶Ƕž 
ӡԻңе塣ʳ̫֮ɡʵ 
ġҲҲͨߣ躣֮ĳɣϢ 
֮ɡȻ飬鼫Ө֮ĪӺӡ 
ĦԻƽȲֶ侱϶侱ʹΪ֮ 
ֹʹ˾Ѫͨ롣Ѹ壬ļŲ೸ҡٹأΪ֮ɡҺʮ 
Һ֮岻аӡ 
̫صԻһ֮ϣĦ֮ʹȣΣʹѣʹ߲Ůνɽ 
ͨҲĿߣѰ֮ݼ֮ŻҲְü֮ѨŹԪ֮ҲļָĦĿȧ 
ϣʮĦȻʱҲѣ˶Źüжϣ뷢ʣҺ 
֮ĿӡĿ֮¡ȧ֮Ǿ֮ҲHT Ĥ֮Ҳ֮ϣʲʼڶĿҲ 
ֳڴӣ˫Ԫϲӡ֮ΪֳԪԼᷢҲ֮棬 
ֳ֮˳ͽ࣬ѪɢʪӡְĿŹΪĿ񣻶ϳԻγ 
ʼƽԻ ĿӣԼθ 
Źƽ֮ڽԣ裬кɣδģаɣ֮л 
ɡҲ綹ȶ죬ƣ֮ϣΪ֮ڣϾ 
һһ֮ڣճǵ֮жֹǷжʮν֪غڿԲ 
зȫ֡һأһ򻧡澫δй 
δƣʱˣ֮֮Ǻϡйƣ 
֮гߣߣִîߣղ 
ߣʼزӦӡ֮֮ҹʱִ꼫ȣһ 
ֽסһþϰ֮ӡһеԱϢ 
ΪһԶΪϢۣ䵼棻򾫲 
ס޹δ֮֮֮ͨ 
֮ѪԻЭöֹҲҲ 
ֹɳɡͣᣬ 
ᣬơð嵼þñغᣬ˵֮Ҳһ 
þ֮Ҳ 
ӻƽֲӾףҡʹ 
ְԱȡ̫̫֮Ѩ 
ڴָںߣ״ְ֮Ŀ֮ 
Ϊְֹ֮ͨĿ ű飬Ŀ 
ϣֲĦƣĿپ飬ְüСѨжţһ 
ҹϸ顣üСѨΪԪ֮ΣӨ⡣鳹ͫ 
¾֮΢Ի棬ɽԴü֮ 
ɽԴǱҲü֮ǳ֮֮Ϸ 
հԻ踳׳䣬ÿղղ¡ıϣ 
ʱѪѣΣҩЧԴϢ֮գʼÿأ 
֮꣬޷ʳѪɫڴ˲ӡʮ࣬ 
ֵôȲֲʽ򣬼ãΩʱ㾲ɨ 
ȴһУ֤أй⾰֣󲢴˹⾰ิ棬 
Уֱǰ޴Žȥ죣Եڴ 
ӡĽּ˹֤ڵһҲ 
Իõʮ꣬ϴʵеãֻ֮֮ⷳ 
ֹΩÿȡŮ 
֮ԶΪ󣬾þðٽͨʳӽڣɽƽҲ 
ףԻô˴δδ飬ʳҲ䷨ʹŮͷò 
ҩҹ峿ŮߵݣȪڣȡڣ֮˹Ԫ֮ 
ؾ֮淽Ҳ 
ӷïԶԻóǬ ֪ԸбΪϢ塣 
ס Ագ϶ҲԻΪڴ֮ӣ 
֮ԭԭҲԸɣԱնᣬ䶯ҲԻΪ 
ڤ֮ӣ֮ԭԭҲǹʸ֮ר֮⣬⣬Ҳںר 
ֱ֮֮٣˱ҲںֱԸɵ仯̫ͣΪ® 
Ҳ֮ӡ߽Ҳ֮֮ҲˮҲ֮֮ 
Ҳո΢գΪɣӲĸνˮΪӡˮδ 
Ҳʮǡ΢ᣬΪսĸ̥νΪˮĸδ 
Ҳơðζءơԣת룬˲رתΪլ 
ຬ֪Ϊߺ֮ߺ̷֮Ϣڵأ֮Ϣº 
֮ߺΡ½ŵҪԼգΩܵ¹ 
¶ڹ棬кɡȻ֮֮Ī֮ʿѭ 
գĩǣԼףգ衷ơõӤ 
̥ʱ⽫ǱơԳӣΪԪĺ̥ӪǣһԪ 
΢һϢ࣬ڣ鼫⣬֮ 
ڸ֮𣬽кԪ֮ǦҲɻˮ 
Ȼ˻Ԫ㣬Ϣ棬գԪԾۣԪ 
ԲƳǱ̶ȣ硶ԡʩ¶⡣ԡȡ𣬷ղ 
⣬ҲӴ ǦڣȻӯǹʶ½ 
תֻ֮ҪоסίޣѬ֮ӯ 
ȻҺǦԺϣ硶ԡ̫ý𻪶Һо 
ʽҲ֡ԡ÷£ܵˮƪ 
֮¶ɼͨһȫãϢ첻죬 
Ǹɶڸ֮ʣҺ仯Ρ 
֮ϵںԻн֮ͨԪҺ 
Ī֮ʼӣΣ桷ԡ֮׵ã˻ҪΣ 
νգν֮תӶîԶϣʱ׻ 
ɢС֮ݣգи֮ԺҲ 
ͽѺ̫ϡơζɢԽѡơϢ 
ɢ䡣Ϊî̵ฺ̼¼šˣΣˣ 
ˡ֮ʿԪ࣬ջ޼ 
°ҲԻõǲٵģشиֱݸߣñ 
õ Ȼ 
üмСӦֻһϡԣȫĿĿ 
ܼ񣬼裬ÿҹб 
ִĦ۱ϣգֽ£ߵʮȪʮ ʮ 
ѽҺ̣ȻĿϡϲϣھϣĿһԲȦ 
֮ѣ⽥󣬳ԲڡӾ񻯣֪֪ 
أ֪ϣڲϣëϡǽϣһ֮һ꣬ 
һ¶績Ȼ֮꣬һ͸϶ţɻ磬 
ţӤʥ֪ӡףԻý 

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ԣݱҹʱ֮֮ӺǰһΡ 
ȥһ˼ǣĿڤģöչ̾˼Ȼߵʮ 
ϢšԵڶָѹָԺҸʮĴΡ 
ҡͷҹ˼粲ת涯ʮġڳݣʮҺڣʮ 
ڣӲ ȻҺҲ߻ҲҺԱԱ֮ 
ȣ΢΢ΪţȣĦʮ 
ϣǰչ̣տڱ֮ĻյȼװںʮҼʮ 
Ե͸˫ءԻ꣬˷ֱţ 
죬ŴΡȻ£ǰʽʮΡнҺˮ 
Ҳ޽ǰȣˮʣΪҲ ȳ 
ڼ粢ʮĴΣתʮĴΣ뵤¶ϣ壬ħΰ 
ֲԲ룬Ǭӡ 

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ԣĿڤչ̾˼ߵʮֱءģʮĶš΢ں 
ˮʮˮȡһڷʣлԱȣĦ 
šһ֡תŷ졣˫УͷƵԺˮ 
ϣ̽ȱϣˮŴ̡ 죬Եȡӳ 
аħҽ²ܻ裬룬ֲ Ӻǰ컯Ǭѭεת 

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ԣһᣬ꣬һʣˮʮ֣ɼʮҲ 
Σأ  Ȼڱ 
һڣἰģŵһֵ֮УԴһ棬ν֮һ² 
̴С״ʹ꣬ãмյ縮͸裬 
ϣ¶ڣ壬ν֮һһһν֮һϢǰ 
Ȼ£Դһ棬²ǰϣӶֹ 
֮ǰν꣬ӡ¿ҺΪ 
ҺҪ ȻҺҲһһᣬڣߡʮ 
ʮģҪмУֹֹֻҪþ֮ڡһʱ 
˼СȻбϢ²֪֮ñϢ֮Է洫Ҳ 

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ԣ˫ͷ죬£ڸǰߵʮȪԽΪ 
ȣ¡УϢ΢΢ڷķǿڼ䣬һ֣ 
ǧ飬һ֣Ⱦּӱֻһաּ֣ӱ 
Ծתɶ֣䶯״򷨡 
ƣϵ֣֮°Ҳ֪աΪ 
ɼʱҲȳУֳϢȻ֪оǾҲ 
񻯵λӣвʱһнԿգ䡢 
Ϊˡ 

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ԣꡱ ǡҲơøʱĿ 
֪ ˫棬ĺǶ֣ 
ȡϥͷƽƢʱڣ̡ 

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ԣ׻ڶǱλʮ־ҲתַĿߵʽ 
ĬʮһһȦһԲͼתʮֹջأڣ 
ӴСԻǱλ׻ڶʮ飬ֹ̫Ϊһ 
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