<ƪ>ƵھУ
ƵھУ
ߣѧ  
  
ݣԪ1644-1911  

<Ŀ¼>
<ƪ>
ԣ־¼ҽ׻Ƶھ־ȫԪעھɾΩע¾ѷȫ֮Ȼֹ 
д̱ȶӹʦ׹ϰǳĪɾڵϪ СಡķαھԪ 
رǰؼ֮ʳнгȫԪעʳггȲ 
νթͬΪ֣עԻΪΪթα벻ΪŶΪȥΪ 
ϸĲΪΪΪ֮ⲻֲ֪ʱνʱҲʱν 
ҲС ƪʱëʱҲַϹʥ֮Ҳν֮ȫԪעϹʥ֮Ҳ½Ϊ֮ν½Ϊ֮ 
½Ի֮ҲΪۺЧƪʻΪҲνΪ֮νΪν֮ν 
Ҳ֮ʧָΨʥ˴֮没ν浱ΪƶಡҲиֱ ˵ Ҳ 
ֺ֮֮νõϳдĶ没֮ӿֺԾΪֵʥ 
֮֮νΪ˵ıҲʥ֮֮νʥ˴Խ߱ҲӴƪһ֮עΪǹ 
ֹ֤֮ͨʥ˴νΪ֮Ҳרͬʥ˾רһҲרһֶϵǴ侲Ҳר 
ר½Ѷʮɪ֮רһרʷʼʼҾ־ҹרִֽ֤ʤ֮䲡 
֮ҲνܶΪ̬ƪĿǿܸнӶҲ̬Ǿ¹ӹ̬Ҳۺۺƪ̬ܺ 
˾紫̬֮ʷ㱾̬ܽԹΪ̬֮ǲıѵʱ׾Ȼȫδҵ 
Ȼ֮ҽ֮ھ֮徭֮ͬѧѧ˶֪ҽ¼֮ע 
ȫ跨˵ѵѾ¹ҽ֤ͨ᪴ҵѽΪӹʦ׹  
Ⱥ鸽ۼ֮ 
\xȴ¹ﺥ˷ʶұɽ\x 

<Ŀ¼>
<ƪ>к״
ԣͬʮһʮ Լھۡʮа˸ϵΪĿ֮ھУ̲ 
ΪڶϵϷѧ˲׹Ϊͬѧͬ־֪̼Ⱦ׫ξ֮Ϊ״ 
־ºпɾ һָʲʯϪسǱɽ˴δʿٻʦ 
¼ʷʦԲļӽʫɽ¼Ϫ֪пӱϪ 
 
 
Ŀȫ鴫徹˼δʿݶʷѲȸᶽϾȹػ¼־ 
ԫԲΪԳ徹 
Ǳ¸ҫ֮湫 ʱδδڵɽ͹ 
ɺѡֱ֪ͬĸ ĸ˽ĸĸϾĸҶ 
ͬТѼƶԹּʮԣԺ岩ʩʱƾ޲Ԥ 
ʮʮν֮䳤Ҳӱĸ氮֮һͬȾмԽϵֵľ 
֮ҵɾʱϵʮԴڷı־Ӵ޲֮Ĭж 
Ⱦ֮ȺʮĶĸ̫ǰʮ֪ʿ곪ض 
ʯɽͼʫ٭۷îȾ߼ϵҹ߶ʮҽҩȾݾϵֵڿ  
ͬνɥھ֮׳ϵֵܶ鿤֮ԺԹѧ֪ڶѧ֥ݸѧ 
ϵԽʤ義ڵǽɽ¸ͼϵֹǿϵֱǵǮ 
ʼʱúɴ￪Ȼ־Ϊ˿һƪѵΪ֮ 
֤ͨζԻĳʮĶӢѧʵ۾Է˼ҵ 
δ̫ͬӪ±˸źݴҹϰƾҵǰʱղī 
ʱӢ֮ҹԹ֮Ϊʱľ˴ϲÿŹΪһԻ¼ġ׷ѧδ 
괺붼彭ۻ˴ܼϪɾӴһϦΪҽҵȻʧؾ޼Я 
㶫Ƿ켸纼ݾԼͬȵɻϸִ 
ԱԮڸѰϹԸ˾½зַɽ˾ʱ;˾Աǳ 
ԼΪ²˳ԸǻϵƳԷ糾ֺ֮ÿ 
Դౡ֮֮޹Ȼĳ붼̴ѳƵݶ֮Ӥ²δʮȻ 
ܵʮԴмʤ򻧺ĳ˼֮Ľ֮ͿĨ޳ɿɾҲ˾֮ 
غ̵ڻ׫ֺɽԹٻԾѧԼͺμ 
ʹ˻¼Ȳֲͽ˹֮Ѿ¸ĸɫ֮Ľ 
Ѱٵ㽭򲹸ݻͳɼúĴװΪ֮ҩˮ²µΪ鴹 
·֮粻ʤ¶еŨͬȻΪ˽Ϊ° 
֮ȻμȻ׸˽ΪǶϵϷνԻΪµΪŽ˱Цл֮ 
ϵҹǰͬҦܾ˫Ծ Ѿ͡ѭµд 
㸺ɲȻŰÿŶѡʤǾڲҲһʱѧ֮ͨʿ鰲ɽӸ߽һ 
ʶӾʦʱ˲ٻΪıϲիտȻмǾ¼Ҳ֮ԮҲ 
Ũ֮˾ũ߼ܿ鹱ȲΪ֮ɥΪ鴼ΪΪɼ֮ 
֮Ҳܽʫѧ̫ԳΪ㴫첻ζ಻ȾԶ˵עѧ齭 
ϱͨѵڬ֮ѧ֮гϾչÿһո 
Ժ󲻻񳣾Ȼÿĵ֤֮渲ʱ֤󴫷ע֤ͨڱಡ 
ҽʱгڶοھԪϱرǰϤУ׫ھУݴδͽ 
ʮڬ˵ȷ϶־ΪӡϪУϪӱڱ֮ⲩʥ¼֮Ϊ 
֮ϼǢֻһоУīر¼δɾӡ׭غѧ֮ 
ÿֱƱñع֮ʲǧڴĽĽ 
Ի־Ȥ˶ެʢϵʼʮ崫ͬúΪһ֧ϵھΪܾ 
Ⱦ챶и֮ ¼֮ϵΪĳ ΪβԹϵۼ 
ÿƴѺ¾Է͵ԵʱþһȻ಻֪Ҳʮ깲 
಻ٿݵɥΩһ˶ѷνΪұΪҾҶҮվڵ³ 
֮ȢϷȢӶƷܳԹӼŮܳһһ 
ŮΰֹФѧ 
\xθϵ״\x 

<Ŀ¼>
<ƪ>
ԣڵУԻϲ֮ȫԪ˵߱Ҳ߻Ƶ᪲Ҳ֮Դ֮Ի 
Ԫд˽δƷι̫̫̫ʼ̫̫δҲ̫֮ʼҲ̫ʼ 
֮ʼҲ̫֮ʼҲʾ߶ ʻƵʴ̫֮ʼҲ֮ɴĿ¼Ի 
֮ػƵԴʦϧ֮֮ԸҽҽԿҲ̲Կ 
֮˲ԹԻҺΪȫ˵δ˵Ǩ֤ͨӶҽԿҲ䱾 
źΪ˵ʮʵδ߷Ҳ֣עʿɥԻηΪʮһԻغ 
̫ؿױ뱮Ի֮ؽνͨڲעؾУԻһʮ󴫰ĲԻ 
ʮܶҽԻ֮괫ԤԻҲƵβ֮ 
᪲Ի߷Ҳ̺ν֮ҽԵѵԻ巨˷֮޹ 
˵ǰΪ˿վҽΪſΪʲɹر֮ 
˽ʧ֮а 
ʱ֮ٶ˥ʱа˽ʧ֮а˽ʧ֮аʧ֮аԻ϶߲а 
ȻҲҲаͨ۵ƪʻƵаַаּаҲʷǴ˹νаز 
аҲϾƪΪ˾оаׯӴʦƪаҲҲϾа¾Ҳ鴫ж֮Ѷʮ󴫲֪ 
֮³а³ڹʼҲʷǻϺɽΪ˱аҲֳνطаҲҲʧ 
ԻδаӺаͬһҲʱаʧ֮аνʱаʧ֮ааȻ 
ҲνаȻаδаӺаνδаӺаעԽΪʧ֮Ի 
Ϊ鹨촫Իʹʤ֮а֮ҲҲаͨǲԻ㧿Һ 
˹éδԳϽಢΪ֮ 
ʳнг 
Ϲ֪֮߷ʳнг͹Ȱȥʳн 
УԻȫԪעʳггȲ̫ͬȫҲթͬΪԵ 
֣עԻΪΪթαӴƪԻ·֪թ֣Ϊʳгг 
ΪĲ벻ΪģʧԻʳ֮ʧ֮ԻԽڶģŶ 
ΪȥΪϸʳггΪʳнг䷨ʵԸĲΪ 
ΪΪ̫֮עͬⲻȹԾּ֮ʹ֮Ĳгһٶ 
ʧ֮ӹ֮Ҳ 
Ժɢ 
侫ԺɢУԻҾԺɢ侫岻ʸҲöȺ֮ 
úҲȺüԺöӸƪƪӲƪΪ 
Ǻʫ⴫֮עνԻ˵ͨ 
ʱ 
֪ʱУԻʱʱǽַҲʱҲʱνҲС ƪʱë 
ԻʱҲͬʱԵɵͨǺ˲ʱ֮ѵ֮нѧ۶֮ν 
ĦԻ̽ҲҲظΪ 
Ϲʥ֮Ҳν֮ 
УԻȫԪעϹʥ֮Ҳ½Ϊ̫֮ǧͬϹʥʹ֮Ϊ̲֮֮ 
ʤ̹֮°շڹԻ½Ϊ֮ȫﱾ˵ҲϹʥ֮Ҳ䣩½Ϊ֮䣩 
Ϊ֮½Ի֮ҲΪۺЧƪʻΪҲνΪֶ֮Իһ֮ν 
ٺ΢ּԻѶν콵ѶνԪ괫Ի֮νٴԵüʮ괫Ի٬֮ν 
Ӷһ֮ʮһ괫Ի֮ν֮Իظ֮νҲԻ֮νӺܾôټƪԻ 
ν䲻ͬҲ˴ԪԻ˽νڸֿӰƪԻʹΪӸ¶Ҳν̰ߣʫ⴫Ի 
Ůν֮ԻνҲ˼ƪԻΣνŮǴԻ֪ν˭ƪԻ 
νڴҲĵۼԻνĩҲϲνΪΪΪνһ֮תʶͨ˵ԷƪΪ߹ 
ӴƪΪνϴﾫƪΪɻϵӦƪΪν΢ƪ֪Ϊ˼ƪΪν˴ӵ 
ߵۼ۪ʳΪӢΪϼƶ¼ʷΪν½Ϊ֮ݱΪνǼ 
֮ΪͨνΪ֮ΪͨνΪ֮ΪͨνʻΪ֮ΪͨνϲνΪν֮ν 
ϾҲ֮Ϲʥ֮ҲΪν֮Ϊʧָ 
  
 Ԫر һоʮƪԻ Ҳ  ͬ ֮Ϊ ֮Ϊѡ 
ʽȼʫ̳ ԻͬȻ α Ӧ ֮ܣر  
ͬ ƪע Ҳܴע壶Ҳ뵭ͬʻ̩ƪĮ ƾ۴ ֮ 
 
Ի 
ʳ׸²ĽԻУԻԻգαԻֽܱرɾԻ 
ͨҲӾƪǨ֮ͬҲԻ֮Բƪʻ⾰ 
ˮھƪԻͬ 
ʼ  ü 
˥ʼʼԻ˥³̽Իǽü飨ܱر ڶ 
־ע鱾 ˵ Ҳ֮ͨΪͺҲīƪ߶̸߼ͺȻͺν 
֮üͺν֮ëͺν֮ ѡ ԻHT  ͬHT ëҲ豷עԻ ë･ȥ֮ 
ͺν֮棨ϴƪׯ֮βͺν֮ ˵ɽƪţȿ Ի 
޽ βľҶͺν֮飨ƪľԪľַԻ ֦Ҷ岢ͬҲ 
в˰Ů 
Ի϶ߺҲ᪲ԻٹͨҲв˰Ů߶ 
֮ԽעԻ϶಻ܹ֮˵Ҳ֮᪲νȻ 
Ҫӳڰ˰ǰŮǰԻв˰Ů߶֮Խв˰ 
֮м֮ɷŮ֮Ů֮ŮӶԲν֮Ӻε಻֮ 
֮ӱز 
 
ϹذעԻνɵ֮Ҳע巺ҳȫԱĴ 
ȫ֮˽νҲ˵Ի˱ζҲذذ֣֮ĿذҲ 
 
й֮ʱߴȫעԻȫԻУԻȫڵ¹ʳע 
岻˼Դȫʧ֮ӽߴҲԻ ҲԻ 贫Ի 
ոԪԪ֣עԻҲעزԻ̴ҲעϴƪԻҲߴҲԻ 
غߴȫׯ±Իν֮˲ 
Ҳʾ֮Իηηʥ֮Թʥ֮ 
ʹ־˽е 
ܱرעƽֵעϴƪԻ̷Ҳϣ 
ŻȽƪкֳ󴫻ҲʳϢΪϹӽƪڲé֮ж 
ɫΪϴƪԶ־ҲΪϳʺ뼫Ϊ֮ڿʯĳ˳ʥ·ʽ 
ΪϣΪע֤ͨҲ˱Ժ֮󱾺֮˲ƹΪ 
һҲαͨעֵ֮ͬעע֪ҲУַУ֪Ҳ 
ʱд֮Լǽ˵ִдעڶܱر첢 
ְ˽⵱˽дҲﷱ¶ѭ֮ƪԻ֮֮ν֣עԻ˼Ҳ˽ν˽ 
Ҳ˽Ҳ֣עʳԻ˽ٳע˾Ի˽мҳ˳ҲעԻ˽νҲ 
עƸԻ˽˽Լ֮Ǽ˽Ҳеν˽Ҳ˽еΪ䷨β 
Эͨ 
ע 
˽⵱˽Ҳ˽ؽ֣ǣǿ˽е߳ж 
йԻ˽ΪжڹԻеã֮ǫǣ 
ľ 
ľעԻνľעδ֮ ˵ ҲдԻʱп   Ҳ鷶 
дʱ֮ ֣עԻ Ҳͨϴʱƪ޿ԻҪԻ֮徲 
ζСƪԻҲ벡ͨĹʱ֮ʼҲ 
֮Ҳֺ֮֮νõϳдĶ没֮ӿֺԾΪע 
ڱƪ֮ԻҲҪ֮ԻҲ֪νͨдԪʹ۱ 
֮壨ԪʹעҲԿ뱩Դֺı 
Ըеһ֮ͨڱ߱غڴ 
 
УԻȫԪ̫Ҳȫ֮ｹ۷Ҷ֮ͬ 
۷α߷֮ͬעԽΪϽϽΪǽǳΪϽĲϽ಻ 
Խ˹Ϊ 
 
УԻ̫ǣرǹͨٺ֣˾ũעΪ 
ΪȻͨ 
֮ 
ʥ֮֮Ϊ˵ıҲӴƪ̶ʦν֮ עԻ߷֮Ҳֻ 
ͶͨԱΪʥ֮֮νʥ˴Խ߱Ҳ뱶෴ƴ 
֮֮֮Ҵ෴ӼУŴҲ漴Ҳע뱶ͬͨԻ屶 
ҲһбҲǹ֤֮ͬӴƪһ֮עԻΪǹ֤֮ͨעνʥĺڵڶ֮ 
ԹѴ˲Ϊ֮˵֮ĺٽ費ֻ֮ڵΪ 
 
ʥ˴ͨ岻ͨעνɴΩʥ˵õܶ಻νΪ֮Ҳ 
봫ƹʻΪΪΪ£רͬʥ˾רһҲʱԻר 
ȫԻӪרһֶϵǴ侲ҲרԻר½Ѷʮɪ֮רһ 
ԻרʷʼʼҾ־ԻҹרֹƪԻһ·ҳ׹ƪһ̣Ҳ 
ҵƪԻҺһҶЧƪԻ֮ڶһˣҶƪԻҶһ 
ϴƪҸעԻ벻רһҲ֤ 
ʪ 
Բʪͷﲻ ˶עΪ˵νΪй֮ʪʪ֮νʪа֮ 
ֶҽ֮ұȶʪ״ӹ޴ηϸǼʳǿΪ 
ڴ˴֮ںʪν˵д˵˼֮ 
ʪȸ򱾲ɺοɱȶ֮ͬǰעΪ˵עر֮ 
Ϊ 
ָƺʪĲ֪νҲӦԻʤױƪע 
Ի֮ΪӸ׹ԻΪ 
ƫ 
ƫʹƫעԻ֮ƫʪߣαʪ˴ܱر֮ƫݰУԻǧ 
ȫԪעҲһоʮƪԻڽҲԻʪҲκ˷ھëԻ 
佥ɽԻʪҲǾΪʪ֮ĳÿʳ庹й͸ 
䶬̶羭עıҾΪҲﱾƫ֮˵ĹʾHT ׭  
 
ʾΪ棩ȫȫӣ֮϶СŲޱ֣עν׭ˮҲ 
ببҽʺ϶Ϊ㣩 
 
֮עԻ߸ҲҲαҲܱر֮ڶƤŨܹΪԶ 
֫Ϊ֮ҲУԻ֮ν֮󶡷ƫҲϲע 
Ϊ󶡴δ㵱֮Ҳƪν֮޷֮ν֮ 
֮ʿǲ㣩ҲҲΪ֮Ϊ֮ƪ̶ӼԽ 
֣ѵ֮ȡҲΤԻԾ֮ȡԸ֮Ҳ 
² 
ں²²Ĳ˳дҲӦز£α²ܱر 
ԻʲھߴҪԻƽԻԻԻΪ 
ԻвߺȽ 
ڳھ 
ζڳھעԻҲڻҲҲɢڽ񳤾úҲ 
ʱԻɢʳɢ֮֮ע˵Ҳڳ֮뺹֮˶ƽ˶ڳνҲһ 
һԻڰܻҲСС ƪԻ˹ڳǾ̾ù޹ԾڰëעԻڻҲ˾ǨעԻڻ 
Ҳ괫עԻνٻ֮ڱʮںƪ´ ԻڷҲںĵ 
עԻڷϳѡξѦԻڷҲƪԻ Сڳ ΪгڳΪ 
Ҫ۸ζ򴺲ȶעԻݻҲƤȶڹעԻڻҲݻųҲü 
ҲǾڳΪҲУԻҲ֮֮֮ͨసֶΪ֮޼ɽΪ 
ɽ겢뼴֤Ωδ֮νܻ֮ԻҲԻܽԻԲ 
ںԹ֮֮ΪܻҲڳʾ֮ζ̫ľܽΪ֮Ͼ 
ܻԻζڳھڳپھڻͬ⣨پľڻҺ 
ģ߹˻ͬ⣨߹˻ģע˵뾭ּ౳Ҵζ˶עǣɢ֮ 
˹Ϊ֤ 
֪֮ƤëҲرҲ֪֮ڽҲ֪֮Ҳ֪֮Ҳ֪֮ 
ҲĩҲֲӦ˾޲ر 
ղ 
ʱղܱرҲгԳעԻĳ 
նνʱ֮ղı֤֮Իղնʼ 
² 
ܱرزܱرת˵ͨ 
ˮ֮Ҳ 
Ի֮ҲѪ֮ŮҲ֮·Ҳˮ֮Ҳ֮ʼҲ 
֮Ҳ֮ҲŮ·Ϊϣ¹ŶϲƻŮɽ֮봦 
֮봦Ͽڿ֮Ʒס֮ϳ·ҽҽ֮϶֮  
ķҴҰ󻧴Сĵطθϱɽ֮ϲа 
ϴHT 븸ŮϻԶŭ »侴  Ѽ븦³ 
Ⱥ֮ĲöҲһʼΪ繬֮̽ʮزȡ 
һﷴ鷶Ϊƪ־̫֮ƽʱʮ 
븺ΪϣŶاСС֮ϴǸ ܻ Ķܻϴϱ 
Ϊ˸ֺϸŶ̩֮˼뾩֮ĸ˼举Ķϳݷ֮ 
ϣ֤֮Ż֣ͨŮԻ֮Ůϲʶ־ϼƪ 
֮˵ λرΪ֮HT Ϊ֮Ķʡܹ˾ 
Լע˶ŵ֮Ϊﺺݵۼи¶֮ƪʱīƪس 
ϷƪʷǼƷÿ˾紫 ݥ֣ߺϰϣ 
ܸ֪֮ϲҲ֮Э߶ྭ˸׶ʧƪԶֵܸĸΪ϶ 
ĸֵܣҹŶĸŶÿֽ֮֮֬֬ͨŻƪͬΪ϶ 
ֵж̳Ϊ϶ףƪΪϣŶâ 
ҵƪ޲߶֪׼һΪ϶ףׯӸɣƪͬׯˮƪ޶ͨΪ϶޶ 
ӽƪлзΪϣ˵ķӷ̷ֲӷҲ¹ȷСź 
˹ɣ 񣩶злʻԭƪ ΪϣŶ ʼΪ 
ʼƪΪ϶̷ƪҲΪϣͬɶ˼֮ȹŶ 
˼ƪΪ϶ѡ񸳻ͬΪ϶ ޲Ϊ 
޽Ҳ 
֮ʼҲ 
УԻ֮ʼԪʹͬѪ֮ŮһԽľ֮ʼ֮ 
ʼ֮ʼҲԪʹľ֮ʼҲľˮͬһʼ 
Ů·ƽͬิʼ帴ͨעνΪ仯֮ԪʼαⱾ 
ִ֮˴ܱرΪ֮˵עľǴд֮Ҳ 
֮Ҳ  ֮ 䲡 䲡 Ը֮״Ҳ  ֮ 
ʤ֮䲡֮ҲܶΪ̬֮Ҳ߲̬֮ҲƪĿǿܸнӶҲ 
̬ ע־¶־֮Ǿ¹ӹ̬Ҳۺۺƪ̬ܺ˾ 
̬֮ʷ㱾̬ܣܣԹΪ̬֤̬֮ܶΪ̬ҵƪΪ 
־֮ī־ƪ֮Ϊ־ͬҲָǽԻгԻʥΪΪ֮ ֮Ϊ 
̬Ϊ ܼ֮ ̬֮ҲرԻ־䲡ܣ䲡Ҳ̫ضΪ̬ 
Ϊϲܼ̬ҲԻԸＰ䲡ܼ䲡̬ҲԻԸ֮״Ҳ״벡ܲټ״ 
̬Ҳʮƪۼ̬Ҳʢ˥Իѭ߻ɬ֮С֮Ϊϼ̬֮Ҳ 
ֻעƤ˵ɲڱƪܶԻūͬǿ֪Ϊ֪ 
־֮ 
ʥΪΪ֮ ֮ܣΪ̬˵ϣ־֮岻صΪҲ 
ͨӣƪ³ ƪҹܸܹ֮ʹɧλë֣Τע 
ԻҲ֮ν֮Ҳ־֮뻴 ƪк֮ƸעԻҲ 
ΪأƪǾ̳֮͢Ҳʷ̳īӾϱҲأ 

