<ƪ>Ϻ֤ұ
Ϻ֤ұ
ߣ  
  
ݣԪ1644-1911  

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ԣʺ֮ʳ֮룬֮ŻҲ֤䷱ڻ𣬸 
𣬶ʺƻȽΪΪףƼȽΪӸ 
Ϊԡ̵ͨӡԻһһν֮ԡνһߣİҲ 
νһߣҲľ𣬻̵̵֮߻֮꣬Ի̵ 
ӣԺӡʵʵʳ峴̻ȶʣ 
̵գԣգȥ̵ȶ 
Ƣ𣬷ŭ򶯸λɫ𣬻Ϲʺ糣 
𡣴ʺ֮ҲؽĿ 

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ԣһʹƶձطȣͷʹֹñҽʿҩ 
ѡ֤֮䣬ڵչҲ 
ԣȡ̵硣ߣҽʿɢ̵ߣҩΣ 
ȶ·֤ηȥ̵ȶ 
꣬ɫںԣңһʹպף 
ϸǣףƶԼտҩ֣ҩһ֣ 
̵ͬٷ΢֮ȥ 
գڵϸǣΪӸ֤պˣң 
Ϊ˫ꡣȻΣ˼ӻ֣߷֣˼ӳְ˷֣ 
֣˫á㲻ͨ׿һǮ߷֡ߣ 
״ҩǰ˫ϵأҲ 
Ӹ֤ʳ Ũζƣȶξʹ֤μ 
ʹ෢ͷʹտҩӻҩڷҩ 
֤ѪͶ˶໼ˣ״縡ƼԸ߶Ũɫں 
ԡҩ֣ҩһ֣ƶʹڷҩɼϣ 
֮࣬꣬÷Ҫؼɽڡ 
Ӹ֤ǰף⣬ҪڹױսᣬҪŧɢ 
ҩ 
Ӹ뾱Ӹ£ 
Ӹȶη뾱Ӹͬ 
ɢ 
һǮѻ֡Ƭ֡Ƭ֡壬Ϊĩ۵Ӵ֭ 
ף󻼴Ž֭֭ɡ 
HT ֤СߣʹΪӸʹӸҲ 
ȶ¡ϬǵػӼûҩԣڴЧ 
ʮһƵ 
գ˺ΣΪͨҲ֤ 
ձ̴٣Ȼʺʹ䣬ƣתڣ 
⣬ұԣк˿ƽָװɫ׳ȣ׶󣬷̵ʢק֮ 
ҲΪ֤ٴҩٹһҹĿֱӣߣ 
Ρõƻ˿ڼߣΡ紭ͷΣڵϦӡҩţһ 
Ǯ϶֤ʮһҽ 
һ˺꼰֤಻ΡǿӲĿӣҲ 
һ֤һղᣬշȣ֤ؼأСͨ 
֤ͨؼ֮𣬹ʺڷȽⶾ֮ҩ㲻 
֤ͨؼأж𣬷ý֮֮ͨҩӺйӺν 
֤أлҪͷʹʹ֤ף⣬֤ߣ 
 
һ֤봵ҩܣԳ̵̵ȥΣ̵һܣҩڱ 
ûҩΪҪʱֱԺУشЧܣ̵ӿ 
һ֤飬ҩ֮ҩ̵ûҩȥ̵ 
һգҩӻҩҩΪ 
һ֤ȥ󣬷ȥȬ̱սᣬ̵ߣΡ 
һ֤淢ף΢йҲ֤ױ 
淢ף֤زԪʢ 
һʹʹȾãٽѪߣкף 
ó״Σƽ֮Ҳ 
һغףϵӸ֤۵ҩҩ塣Ӹ֮䣬ȡ 
֮ǡ 
һΣֹߣ˶õƲݻңȻ 
һ֤𣬴սᣬơ۸һǮ֣΢֮Խ 
գòʳսߣС򲡾ãθ飬Ԫ 
ۼ嵼֮ͨ 
һ֤ڷⶾ֮淢ɢ֮ҩⶾؼţӡ 
֮࣬ɢա֮࣬ý۹ 
һ˺֤ʹ򾭱»ߣͨҩļ֤֤ͨ 
׶ɫ졣 
һ֤ɴҩȡЧĿǰδº𣬶˹븹ǰ 
ףϴйָڣպȫʳڶ 
һʺߣɷѪ֮Ҳ˺к֮ף 
ȼ롣ʧߣΡ 
һԻֹķ壬з壬 
һڣߣƹϣƹǣζΪϸĩ 
УŮң֮Կ̵¡Ȼ˿࣬պʲ 
ഽûҩӱƬƵ 
һã˿պˮ߼֪ʹϵ⣬ 
 
һ״ѻĩӱƬֹ֮Ѫóѻơ 
һHT Ӹ֤㲻ͨڼơ۸һǮ֣΢ 
зóɹ£̶ࡣС㲻ͨߣһɢ֮Ч 
һ֤ҩһΣߵͷڣ©̵ճߣҩ 
ߣΡ 

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ԣ֤һսߣڲ飬࣬Ҫ 
֤麮Ҳ̵ᾡ̵֮ؽHT ֮ 
̵һ߲ͬһ߶ҩ֮ 
ˮ֮ʹһͨҩɢͽ⣬²պٷս 
ʹвʹʹ֤Ρ 
ʱؽͣ࣬лммߣ 
΢ȣСսߣ֤ʯܶɢ֤֮罥֤֮ 
պߣײΩ֤δطףߣ 
ΡߣΡɫҡӣɰֽߣΡ࣬ȣ̿ 
Ҳ 
֮࣬ɫѩףһ𣬼ɫɫѪȻڳߣ̿ 
ɿڿ̵ҽߣ١һȫߣ༫ΣҲ 
ϣףߣ㲻Ρߣɫ 
ʹߣΡ֮ΪУءϽΪϵͨ 
ײΣ֮Ҳ 
Ӹ֤״ľʢؽףҩƸ룬 
ûɽ١Ϭǡ 
ľ֤£״棬Ͻߣ·Ȭ𣬲 
ʹȣ״٣Ȭڷҩҩ 
ӻҩʱƼãûҩߡһ֣Ӳܾٶߣľ࣬ 
ͬ࣬Ի࣬ŧѪ 
ѪΣӡ 
֤ľϣ״ľɫ 
֤ĻڱطңҩڷϬǵػɽ 
Ӹ򦣬ɫݣ綹ƳѪҩ֮ 
۷֤ȳʹѣڸףϺɫѪö 
 
©֤ǰ֤òݷгŧҲѵΡߣΡ 
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֤ʹѪβ֮룬 
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Ӹ֤һ磬ײʢɴС飬ϣϻ 
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̹֮ 
ҧ֤УݲܿףҹȻ 
HT ֤θ綹󣬻ڻ⣬޶ 
֤˷гѪƢθ 
ʵϹҲθ鶯µѪ©Ҳ 
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֤ȶʹȣʹ̣ϷһɫҲ 
ǰ֤δۣ߶ɫ߿Σ 
ɰڷ֤׳࣬ ȣãѳΪ 
ڷ֤Сݣһһ߰˾ţ 
֤ϵΣˮΡ 
֤˻ߣùСߣ̥򶻺඾ 
óᣬɱ١ߣΡɫɽһһ֣һ磬 
Ҳг価ӡûҩ˷« 
岻ΡڳѻߣΡڸߣΡѪߣΡ 
ߣΡҩЧߣΡ 
֤һѩڡСм 
֤С̥̥ܷ磬ಫа 
ɫߣǡҲ̥ʱ磬ð磬֮ӡ˱ 
ʱв֪죬ΣʲߣƵ̥֮࣬ʱ 
ҪղɣռӲӡзٷߣԼ⣬ 
 
ڸߣΡС̥ɫȿߣΡ 
Сᣬ˹ǲ۷磬ƫһ֮ 
һ䣬䣬أΡ䣬 
пΡ 
οᣬ޻˿ޣϣȻҩѴҩ 
ߣ۵ˮٷ 
ϷŹɫߣΡŹɫߣΡ顣νŹߣ 
ϱŹҲ 
꣬䣬ͷ 
꣬ͷβм䣬ѪΣѪΡʹ룬˵ 
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ѪӸźҲŧ֮ӸʹŧҲ֮ 
ںԣԲۣѪ˿õ룬ߣԱ֮Ұñ 
ء 
֤档ϵڽͣԶͨ䲻֤֮ͨ 
аˡԻ˫ꣻԻꣻԻ˫պԻպԻͣԻľͣԻ磻Ի 
աУʴں֮ԣףƣνꡣһΪ 
Ϊ˫СߣպȽ£һС࣬͡ȽУΪ 
֮ףľ͡ľߣľǿ֮νȽں⣬Ҵߣ 
硣ߣա˰ߣ΢֮ɢ 
֮գڷƣ̳Ѫ 
ʺڷΣʵ֣֤֮֮ߣ˼ǹ࣬㣬 
ϺƤéݣ̵Ͷʵߣ⣬£߷ 
̵գűˮãΪ硣ҩΩ̺䣬й 
Ѫηҧ̵ָǣЧӸԡߣԱ겡޷ 
ղѪ粻̵Ӹŧ겻ӣԷǷҲ̵ԣ 
ʺߣˮѽߣΪ֮꣬ģĪ֮٣Ŀ꣬ 
ЮԼߣȷԡ 

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ˮΡͨɢ 
硣̵ȣΪײΪƲԣף۰סࡢ 
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